IST 605: WWI Origins

How did the "scramble for empire" impact international relations in the 19th century? What were the consequences of Germany's and Italy's entry in the race for colonial possessions? 

Was the Ottoman Empire the "sick man of Europe," or was it falling prey to the expansionist ambitions of other powers? Did the major powers' involvement in the "Eastern Question" fuel the Balkans' volatile political situation? 

With Britain often at odds with France and Russia over colonial possessions and spheres of interest, was the Anglo-German naval rivalry different? 

 How did the Franco-German clashes over Morocco and their resolution impact the relationships between the major powers? 

The Ottoman Empire's influence in the Balkan region was waning in the 1800s; as a result, local nationalist movements strengthened, leading to Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria all achieving independence. Due to the region's strategic location, these changes attracted the attention of the major European powers, who were eager to speculate on the possible demise of the Ottoman Empire and the partition of its territories, in what became known as the Eastern Question. While Britain favored preserving the Ottoman Empire as a guarantor of the status quo, Russia wished to expand westwards to gain access to more navigable seas. Desirous to join the colonial powers, Germany was also interested in acquiring greater influence in the Balkans and the Middle East. Austria-Hungary perceived the nationalist movements in the Balkans as a threat to the integrity of its own multinational empire and sought to strengthen control over its southern border, a foreign policy that led to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. After Serbia's victories in the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, Austro-Hungarian fears of imperial disintegration grew worse because Serbia could then leverage its newly acquired territory and influence towards the realization of its nationalistic dream to unite all Southern Slavs under one nation, and this included the numerous Slavic communities under Austro-Hungarian rule. 

Were the Balkans the "powder keg" of Europe? 

How were previous crises in the Balkans prevented from escalating to a European war? 

What was the extent of Russian influence in the Balkans? 

Was pan-Slavism a threat to the integrity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire?

Readings

Menning, R. R. (2012). Dress Rehearsal for 1914? Germany, the Franco-Russian Alliance, and the Bosnian Crisis of 1909. Journal of The Historical Society, 12(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5923.2011.00353.x

Menning explores the parallels between the Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 and the July crisis of 1914 by analyzing the diplomatic maneuvers and alliances that unfolded during the Bosnian crisis and discusses the various viewpoints on the significance of the Bosnian crisis in relation to the outbreak of the First World War. He focuses on the German strategy and the reasons that contributed to its success, including Berlin's leverage of France's financial interests in Russia and Russia's military weakness. He also compares the Bosnian crisis to the preceding one in Morocco, in 1905-06, shedding light on the inner dynamics of European diplomacy during this period. This reading highlights the effect of the Ottoman Empire's weakening hold over the Balkans on international relations and how the major European powers' increasing involvement exacerbated tensions and polarization between alliances. 

In the second half of the 1800s, the major European powers were competing to expand their empires in the few remaining parts of the globe still not subjugated to colonial power. Eager to join the ranks of Europe's "Great Powers," Germany and Italy were particularly anxious to acquire colonial possessions, and their imperial designs most often focused on Africa. This led to several diplomatic incidents, including most notably the Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911 between France and Germany. In 1905, the Kaiser delivered a speech in Tangier, which was interpreted as antagonizing by the French, who had laid claim on Tangier as part of their "zone of influence". In 1911, an armed German vessel was sent to the port of Agadir during a period of local rebellion against the French colonial government.

Why were diplomatic resolutions successful during the Moroccan crises? 

What were the effects of the Moroccan crises and their resolutions on the alliance system? 

Readings

Hamilton, K. A. (1987). The “Wild Talk” of Joseph Caillaux: A Sequel to the Agadir Crisis. The International History Review, 9(2), 195–226.

This article explores the Agadir Crisis of 1911 through the lens of French foreign policy under Prime Minister Joseph Caillaux, who attempted to conciliate Franco-German relations during his premiership. Hamilton analyses Caillaux's involvement in the Agadir Crisis, his alleged unauthorized negotiations with German representatives, their impact on the peaceful outcome of the crisis, and the poor reception of his methods by the French government, which was concerned about potential consequences for French interests and alliances. The broader shifts in political dynamics are also explored, including the weakening position of the radicals in the British government who had advocated for better relations with Germany. Hamilton's analysis offers an overview of the lasting impact of the Agadir Crisis on the political landscape and on diplomatic relations, illustrating how Germany's attempts at weakening the Anglo-French Entente had an inverse effect. 

Mortimer, J. S. (1967). Commercial Interests and German Diplomacy in the Agadir Crisis. The Historical Journal, 10(3), 440–456.

Mortimer explores the interplay between commercial interests and Berlin's diplomatic decisions during the Agadir Crisis of 1911. Mortimer advances that the German Foreign Office's view about the commercial interests that could be gained by expanding into Morocco influenced Germany's diplomatic actions, particularly in relation to France. It also touches upon the divergent expectations and outcomes of German actions during the crisis, as well as the reactions of other European powers. The Agadir Crisis coupled with Germany's broader ambitions in Morocco, strained relations with Britain, which viewed Germany's actions as a challenge to its own interests in the region. During the subsequent international conference, Germany found herself dependent on the limited support of Austria-Hungary, given British alignment with France. Overall, the article sheds light on the intricate connections between economic interests, diplomacy, and international relations during a critical period in European history.