References

Black Opry. (n.d.). HOME. Black Opry. https://www.blackopry.com/. Black Opry is home for Black artists, fans and industry professionals working in country, Americana, blues, and folk music. Country and roots music have been made and loved by Black people since their conception, but overlooked and disregarded by the genre. The Black Opry aims to change that.

Browne, D. (2020, September 2). Linda Martell, country’s lost pioneer. Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/linda-martell-black-country-grand-ole-opry-pioneer-1050432/. David Browne profiles Linda Martell, the first Black female solo artist the play the Grand Ole Opry. After her 1969 record “Color Me Country,” Martell’s career was short-lived as she faced racism in the industry and from audiences. Browne interviews Martell, 79, as she looks back on her trail-blazing career..

Burfeind, H. (2021). "Mississippi You're on My Mind": Stoney Edwards and the Complex Interplay of Race and Region in 1970s Country Music. Southern Quarterly, 58(3), 151-172. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/mississippi-youre-on-my-mind-stoney-edwards/docview/2827037773/se-2 After Black Grand Ole Opry pioneer DeFord Bailey was fired from the show in 1941, it was Charley Pride's groundbreaking achievements that, starting in the late 1960s, brought the idea of a Black country artist into public consciousness. It was only with the arrival of Stoney Edwards and O.B. McClinton--in 1970 and 1971, respectively, four to five years after Pride's first chart hit--that other Black artists were able to establish long-term careers. Whereas McClinton opted for a comparatively playful but self-reflective approach, this essay will show that Edwards's work had a decidedly traditional bent.

Currin, Grayson Haver. "Black Women Help In Telling Her Story." New York Times, 6 Apr. 2024, p. C1. The New York Times, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A788990881/SPN.SP04?u=albanyu&sid=bookmark-SPN.SP04&xid=adbd9c74. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024. This article, published just before the release of Beyonce's album "Cowboy Carter," profiles songwriter Alice Randall. Randall became the first Black woman to write a number 1 country hit in 1994, but soon quit writing country songs because of the lack of Black singers in the genre. Randall's compilation and book, both called "My Black Country," offers a counter-narrative of country music history focusing on Black artists, from early Grand Ol Opry Star DeFord Bailey to Lil Nas X.

Davidson, J. (2019, February 21). Rhiannon Giddens’ 21st-century sound has a long history. Smithsonian; Smithsonian.com. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/rhiannon-giddens-american-music-history-21st-century-sound-180971449/. This Smithsonian article profiles Rhiannon Giddens’, a Pulitzer prize-winning musician. Giddens, a banjo player, has promoted education around the banjo’s origin as an African instrument. Her work explores all types of folk music, including African American folk music.

Del Valle Schorske, C. (2022, December 13). Fairytale: The Pointer Sisters, the Great Migration, and the soul of country. Oxford American. https://perma.cc/WJP4-2BBQ. This article discusses The Pointer Sisters, known for hits like “I’m So Excited” and “Automatic,” and their ability to travel through genres like funk, jazz, rock and disco. The sisters also won a Grammy for “Fairytale,” a country song written by Anita and Bonnie Pointer, which they performed at the Grand Ole Opry. The article explores their early life and upbringing and their relationship to country music. .

Devlin, P. (2016). Country Soul: Making Music and Making Race in the American South. African American Review, 49(1), 63-65. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/country-soul-making-music-race-american-south/docview/1783939592/se-2 Stars who emerged from the triangle include Al Green, Wilson Pickett, Bobby Womack, the Staples Singers, Isaac Hayes, Sam & Dave, Otis Redding, Booker T and the MGs, Charley Pride, Dolly Parton, and Elvis Presley, while those who traveled to the triangle in search of a particular sound include James Brown, Liza Minnelli, and the Rolling Stones. Hughes writes that Jerry "Swamp Dogg" Williams, a black country-and-soul musician, "understood that his hybrid music offered a way out of race-based genre divisions imposed by the music industry by presenting a vision of a southern future where the best traditions of the past coexisted with the social and political transformations of the 1960s" (149).

George, J. R. (2007). Imagining Tee-Tot: Blues, Race, and the Legend of Hank Williams. Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South, 14(1), 33-45. https://libproxy.albany.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=31h&AN=40098551&site=ehost-live This article discusses the relationship between Rufus Payne, an African American musician also known as "Tee-Tot," and country music legend Hank Williams. Tee-Tot has been described as a friend, fan, mentor, and music teacher to Williams. Since little is known about Payne, he has been depicted in various ways in accounts of Williams's life.

Grow, K. (2024, March 29). Linda Martell on Beyoncé’s “Cowboy Carter”: “What she is doing is beautiful.” Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/beyonce-linda-martell-statement-cowboy-carter-1234996636/. This article discusses Linda Martell’s appearance on Beyonce’s 2024 album “Cowboy Carter.”

Gussow, A. (2010). Playing Chicken With the Train: Cowboy Troy's Hick-Hop and the Transracial Country West. Southern Cultures, 16(4), 41-70,120. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/playing-chicken-with-train-cowboy-troys-hick-hop/docview/816598612/se-2 This article focuses on Troy Coleman, known professionally as Cowboy Troy, and his country-rap single, "I Play Chicken With the Train." Gussow analyzes the lyrics of the song and responses from country, rap and hip-hop artists. Further, the article examines the relationship between contemporary country music and hip-hop.

Hidden in the mix: the African American presence in country music. (2013). In D. Peckmold (Ed.), Duke University Press eBooks. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822394976. This book contains a collection of essays on the Black influence in country music, the misconceptions of the “whiteness” of country music, and the way that myth has been maintained. The book contains essays on Black country artists and identity in country music. .

Hira, N. (2019). Rediscovering Charley Pride. Newsweek Global, 173(15), 42–45. https://libproxy.albany.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=bth&AN=139637745&site=ehost-live This article discusses the life and legendary career of Charley Pride, who became a country music superstar in the 1960s. Nadira interviews Pride, the first Black artist to perform at the Grand Ole Opry following the departure of DeFord Bailey in 1941. Pride was known for his legendary voice and traditionalist style.

Hughes, Charles L. "'I'm the Other One': O.B. McClinton and the Racial Politics of Country Music in the 1970s." The Honky Tonk on the Left: Progressive Thought in Country Music, edited by Mark Allan Jackson, U of Massachusetts P, 2018, pp. 121-46. This essay analyzes the career of Black country musician O.B. McClinton in the context of racial politics in country music. McClinton released the song "Black Speck" in 1976, which discussed race in country music, not long after the success of Charley Pride.

Kienzle, R. (2015). Pride, Charley. Grove Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.a2276306. A brief biography of Charley Pride, the first Black person inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. Pride achieved remarkable success in country music in the 1960s.

King, S., & Foster, P. R. (2018). “Leave country music to white folk”?: Narratives from contemporary African-American country artists on race and music. In M. A. Jackson (Ed.), The Honky Tonk on the Left (pp. 213–235). University of Massachusetts Press. https://libproxy.albany.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=e000xna&AN=1854347&site=ehost-live&ebv=EB&ppid=pp_214. This essay first gives some background on the history of country music with attention to contributions from African American musicians and issues of racism in country music. Next, the article focuses on stories from Black country musicians, including Rissi Palmer, Darius Rucker, Charley Pride and Miko Marks, about their experiences in the music industry.

Morton, D. C. (2013). Bailey, DeFord. Oxford Music Online. Grove Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.a2234221. A brief profile on DeFord Bailey, famed harmonica and early star of the Grand Ole Opry radio show.

Palmer, R. (2022). Epilogue. In P. J. Bishop & J. E. Watson (Eds.), Cambridge University Press eBooks (pp. 256–263). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108937443.022. In the Epilogue of “Whose Country Music?” Rissi Palmer, who charted three singles on country charts in 2007 with her debut album, recounts her career in country music. Palmer discusses the disparities in the country music industry and proposes ideas for how to bridge and fill the gaps. .

Parler, S. (2020). DeFord Bailey in country music’s multiracial canon. Journal of the American Musicological Society, 73(1), 53–94. https://doi.org/10.1525/jams.2020.73.1.53. This in-depth article discusses the life and career of harmonica player DeFord Bailey, but focuses on his legacy in country music and the ways his story has been obscured and used to support various and sometimes conflicting narratives of American country music. After the WSM Barn Dance radio program was renamed the Grand Ole Opry, Bailey was the first to perform under the new moniker. After his death, discussions over whether or not Bailey should be inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame ensued. These conversations reveal the complicated history of race in country music and how the careers of Black country musicians have been used to defend country music institutions from accusations of racism.

Pride, C. (2004). American. In Routledge eBooks (pp. 95–108). Informa. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203500071-8. An interview with Charley Pride about his career in country music and identity. Pride discusses his experiences in the recording industry, including experiences working with well-known Nashville producers and artists. He also discusses his career in baseball .

Ray Charles Reflects On His Country Music Roots [Audio podcast episode]. (2021, September 24). In Fresh Air, NA. National Public Radio, Inc. (NPR). https://link-gale-com.libproxy.albany.edu/apps/doc/A677098841/LitRC?u=albanyu&sid=bookmark-LitRC&xid=584c9346 This is a transcript of a 1998 episode of NPR's Fresh Air hosted by Terry Gross, who interviews Ray Charles about his groundbreaking 1962 album "Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music." Charles talks about his love for country music as a child, his time spent playing in a country band, and his selection of songs covered on the album.

Royster, F. T. (2016). Black Edens, country Eves: Listening, performance, and black queer longing in country music. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 21(3), 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2016.1156973. This article explores Black queer country music listening, performance, and fandom as a source of pleasure, nostalgia, and longing for Black listeners. Royster uses her own personal anecdotes and reflections, as well as interviews from Black female country fans to explore the intersections of race, gender, and sexual identities in country music performance and fandom. The article discusses Tina Turner’s solo album, “Tina Turns the Country On!” (1974) as an example of resistance of social norms in country music. .

Royster, F. T. (2022). Conclusion. Black Country Music Afrofuturisms: Mickey Guyton, Rissi Palmer, and DeLila Black. In Black Country Music (pp. 171–188). University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/323526-008 In the conclusion to her book "Black Country Music," Royster looks to the future. Guyton is only one of several contemporary artist included in this chapter. Royster discusses Guyton's song "Black Like Me," which she released amid racial tension and protests after the death of George Floyd.

Royster, F. T. (2022). LOVE YOU, MY BROTHER: Darius Rucker’s Bro-Intimacy. In Black Country Music (pp. 47–76). University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/323526-003 Royster interprets Rucker's career through the lens of "bro" culture in this chapter of her book, Black Country Music. Royster observes that Rucker uses the "codes" of bro culture to travel through white spaces of country music. She also discusses the impact of Charley Pride of Rucker and his career.

Royster, F. T. (2022). UNEASY LISTENING: Tina Turner’s Queer Frequencies. In Black Country Music (pp. 27–46). University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/323526-002 Royster reflects on Tina Turner's first solo album, "Tina Turns the country on." Royster puts the album in the context of country music at the time and includes her own personal experiences with the album.

Shepherd, J. E. (2024, April 1). Beyoncé: Cowboy Carter. Pitchfork. https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/beyonce-cowboy-carter/. Pitchfork’s review of Beyonce’s album “Cowboy Carter.”

Spanos, B. (2024, March 30). On “Cowboy Carter,” Beyoncé Isn’t Going Country. She’s Reinventing American Music in Her Own Image. Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/beyonce-cowboy-carter-review-1234996919/. Rolling Stone’s review of Beyonce’s country album “Cowboy Carter.” .

Wald, E. (2012). Blues. Oxford Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.a2223858. An overview of the genre of “the blues,” from its African American folk roots through its evolution throughout the 20th century. Wald notes that the blues is “widely regarded as the foundation for nearly all later American popular forms.” Sections 4 and 5 specifically discuss the connections between the blues and the genre later known as country music. .